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Although civic emancipation of the Jews had made great strides by the end of the 19th century, the status of the Jews remained problematic in most countries. In Eastern Europe, which was home to the largest concentration of Jews in the world, they were still denied civic rights and suffered various restrictions and discriminatory practices. Furthermore, even in places where they had been granted civic rights, antisemitism was on the rise largely in reaction to the increasing prominence of Jews in the economy, culture and politics.
In a number of countries, extreme nationalism led to an increase in antisemitic manifestations and the exclusion of Jews from social and educational institutions. The ‘Jewish Question’ became a major issue in European politics.